A Quick Run Through History, Part II
by Chottie Alderson

Originally published in Needle Pointers, Volume X, Number 3, Fall 1982
Art work by Thelma Brittain

OPUS ANGLICANUM PERIOD: (900-1350)

Cross stitch, Plait stitch (Long Arm Cross stitch), Brick filling, simple Florentine (Bargello fillings closely linked with Underside Couching patterns), Split stitch, Couching and Tent. Very little difference in ground fabric used for any type of Embroidery; mostly linen, usually with 26 threads to the inch or smaller, mostly untwisted (stranded) silk and gold and silver threads.

Steel needles were introduced into Europe by the Moors and were known to be made in Nuremberg in 1370. They were introduced into England during Mary I's reign (1551-58). They were being produced in England during Elizabeth I's time.

TUDOR (1509-1558) and ELIZABETHAN (1558-1603):

Cross stitch, Two sided Italian Cross stitch, Long Arm Cross, Tent and Basketweave, Brick, Encroached Gobelin, Rice, Hungarian, Eyelets and variations and much use of Embroidery stitches in and on top of it all plus tufting of various types.

Henry VIII's day was marked by magnificent pomp and display. The royal meeting at the "Field of the Cloth of Gold" was characteristic of the splendor of this period. There is a legend telling of a band of tailors in Henry's employ who committed suicide because they were so overcome with despair at their failure to meet the commissions he gave them.

With Henry's suppression of the religious houses all over England in 1536, many of the beautiful and exquisite Church embroideries fell into the hands of Henry's agents or the families who were granted the Church properties. Many of these were cut and remodeled into everyday garments or household items.

The first printed pattern book was published in Augsburg, Germany, about 1523 and was rapidly followed by dozens of similar books. In England, during the 1500's, John Shelton wrote in his poem, "Phyllyp Sparowe":

"I took my sampler ones,
of purpose, for the nones,
to sowe with stytchis of sylke
My sparow whyte as mylke"

And Barnabe Riche's tale "Of Phylotus and Emilia," written in 1581, says: "Now, when examplers, and to persue which work would doe beste in a ruffe, whiche in a quaife, whiche in a caule, whiche in a handcarcheef; what lace would doe beste to edge it, what seeme, what stitcher, what cutte, what garde; and to sitte her doune and take it forthe by little and little, and thus with her nedle to passe the after noone with devising of things for her owne wearynge:" Embroidery was gradually coming into general use as a part of everyday life and costume. During Elizabeth I's reign, the rising middle class emulated their Queen's love of luxury (one of her dresses had 1000 seed pearls on it and another had a diamond for every day in the year sewn on it). The Nobility no longer had a monopoly on luxury.

Sumptuary Laws were passed, forbidding anyone with an income of less that £200 a year from wearing embroidered clothing during Elizabeth I's reign.

The London Broderer's Guild was organized as a Craft Guild in 1401 and received its formal Charter in 1561. The purpose of the Guild was to improve the quality of work, to accredit workers and for mutual aid. The quality of work was kept at its highest by royal favor and patronage, and the Guild flourished until the end of the 17th Century.

Many new ideas and crafts (and fabrics) were brought into the country at this time by refugees from Europe (because of the religious wars) and English explorers combing the New World. This was also the time of Italian silks and satins with the most marvelous colors -- crimson "Cloth of Gold," masareene blue, straw-colored cloth embroidered in silver and gold, and dove-colored fabric embellished with touches of orange, tawnies and russets, to mention just a few. For the first time, cotton was being woven with wool.

It was during this time that Tent stitch came into its own. It was used to make so many cushions that the work was commonly referred to as 'Cushion Work'. Some of the most beautiful 'Tent' canvaswork was done at this period. There was realistic and symbolic shading and much detail was used. Tent stitch was now being used on its own for the entire piece of Embroidery and not always being combined with other stitches or methods. The vogue for 'Turkey' work started during Elizabeth's time, and many Turkeywork 'table carpets' were imported to England. It was called 'Turkeywork' because it came from Turkey. Some design was worked in Turkey Knot and the background in Cross stitch but mostly the whole piece was done in Turkey work. These were used for table rugs in the wealthy homes.

Fine workmanship with the needle gave rise to strong rivalries between members of Elizabeth I's Court; each individual trying to outdo all others with the magnificence of the embroidery and cost of the jewels and materials used on his/her clothing.

Part of the charm of Elizabethan design was the freehand drawing of the patterns used. They matched the Age -- they had great strength, virility, and style. Elizabeth I was known to have done fine embroidery. Her personal embroidery instructor was John Parr.

STUART: (often called Jacobean) (1603-1625)

All the above plus Rococo, Tied Gobelin, Oriental, Blanket French Stem, Braid, Eyelets, Guilloche, Montenegrin Cross, Double Cross (Smyrna), Florentines, Woven Knobs and other free embroidery stitches. Masses of obscure variations on all these stitches. We could be pretty safe in saying almost any stitch now known was known then. Some (Gros-Point (Half-Cross) and Tent in particular) were considered rather dull and not much used. Some Detached Buttonhole, Padded or Unpadded Applique was in use and a quaint form of Needlework known variously as Stumpwork, Raised Work or Embossed Work was in high vogue during this period.

Florentine patterns were used both in their own right in self-color on linen or mixed with other canvaswork; linen canvas with 40 threads to the inch was used as a base for untwisted silks and silver and gold threads and gilt. The work was elaborate and lavish but the designs had tightened up and were most stiff and precise -- almost pinched in effect. It became quaint and had charm but lost much of the style of Elizabethan times; many more stitches were now in use.

Richard Shoreleyker's book "The Schole-house of the Needle" was first published in 1624. The title page read: "Here followeth certain patternes of cut workes and but once printed before. Also sundry sorts of spots as Flowers, Birds, Fishes, etc. and will fitly serve to be wrought, some with Gould, some with Silke and one with Crewell or otherwise at your pleasure."

This was a pattern book with all sorts of small drawings and designs which the Needlewoman could copy on to her fabric and then embroider any way she pleased.

In the 1640 edition of "The Needles Excellency," John Taylor printed this list of some of the stitches in use at this time:

"For tent worke, raised worke, first worke, laid worke, net worke,
Most curious purl or rare Italian cut worke.
Fire, fern stitch, finny stitch, new stitch, chain stitch
Brave bred stitch, fisher stitch, Irish stitch and Queen stitch,
The Spanish stitch, Rosemary stitch and mowle stitch,
The smarting whip stitch, back stitch and cross stitch;
All these are good, and this we must allow,
And they are everywhere in practice now."

Round-thread canvas started to appear by 1650. This was soft canvas made of linen (sometimes called "scrim").

WILLIAM AND MARY (1689-1703), QUEEN ANNE (1702-1714) and GEORGIAN (1714-1809)

Almost all Half-Cross stitch, Cross stitch and some Florentine both by itself and as skies on pictures worked in Half Cross stitch. The fancier stitches were still found but most on Samplers (interest in the use of which was intensified at this period). They were usually worked on linen with the thread too thin to cover the fabric (what we now call "Counted work on linen" as opposed to "canvaswork").

The William and Mary and the Queen Anne period are considered by some to be the finest period of domestic embroidery in England. Mary II, daughter of James II and wife of William III of Orange, was a 'born needlewoman.' She was an ambitious embroideress and her chief ambition in life was to be the "Patron Saint of English Needlewomen."

The new advances in furniture at this time provided the Needlepointer with acres of upholstered furniture to cover.

Frank Davis, of England, wrote:

"Considering the extraordinary diligence of the women of the Stuart period and their passion for needlework pictures, it is strange they did not turn their attention to chair covers more frequently under Charles I and Charles II. Furniture was just beginning to be comfortable. But, for some reason, nearly all upholstery was carried out in brocade or velvets, mainly imported from Genoa. By the end of the 17th Century, however, chairs were beginning to be covered with needlework very similar to the familiar curtains worked in wool on linen; and the typical William and Mary chair, with its tall back, lent itself marvelously well to the bold designs of leaves and flowers. By about 1700, seats and backs of this type of design were common, and the taste lasted about fifty years, after which the French fashion for woven tapestry rather than needlework invaded the polite world of London."

Stiffened canvas appeared around the early 1800's and was commonly 18 threads to 1 inch. Crewel wools and untwisted silks were in common use at this time; also worsteds, the name then for tapestry yams. Cotton canvas was often called 'catgut' in the American colonies at this time.

Francis Bacon took note of Embroidery when he wrote "We see in Needlework and Embroidery, it is more pleasing to have a lively work upon a sad and solemn ground than to have a dark and melancholy work upon a lightsome ground". It is still good advice today.

Patterns were drawn directly on to the canvas or a pattern or picture was 'pounced' on to the fabric using powder or charcoal. Colors were never indicated. This was left up to the embroiderer's imagination, and her past experience in shading. Patterns of flowers, birds, animals, scenes, etc., were rather stylized.

Canvaswork was not as popular as crewelwork in the early colonies. Probably the reason for this is that it took much more time to complete and was more costly as it used much more precious wool.

Probably the first type of canvaswork in the colonies was the early samplers, many of which carry true canvas designs, although most were worked evenweave linen. This linen was fairly coarse and usually tan in color.

By the beginning of the 18th century, the colonies were flourishing and trading with England and other countries for the stuffs and materials not produced in this country.

Advertisements in local papers were offering: canvas, crewells, needles, and designs for the working of 'embroidery'.

Although much of the wool used was spun and dyed by the colonial housewives, it was possible to buy it in the trading centers of the colonies. Indigo was one of the few dyes that had to be imported. Much of it came from the West Indies. In South Carolina, a young lady by the name of Eliza Lucas, who later became Eliza Pinckney, changed the course of the indigo trade. She brought some indigo plants from the West Indies where she had lived and raised them successfully at her plantation along the Wappoo Creek as early as 1742. Soon indigo became the staple crop of South Carolina and remained so until the Revolution.

Dye houses were not unknown, one opened as early as 1712 near Boston. In 1747 one Sam Hull advertised in the Boston News Letter that he dyed all materials as well as cleaning and stiffening buckram. He also made glue (glew) as a sideline.

In the mid 18th century shops were offering canvas for sale -- either 'open' or with designs drawn upon it. In 1768 a shop near Williamsburg was offering canvas and worsteds for working same.

Many of the early advertisements are most interesting. For example: from the Boston News Letter of March 2, 1712 we read: "At the house of Mr. George Brownell in Wings Lane is taught Writing, Cyphering, Dancing, Treble Violin, Flute and Spinnet, etc. Also English and French quilting, Imbroidery, Florishing, Plain Work, marking in several sorts of stitches and several other works, where scholars may board."

Mr. James Ivers taught Flourishing (the art of shading flowers), Imbroidery and all sorts of needlework, also painting on glass, writing, arithmetic and singing of Psalm tunes.

Another teacher advertised that she taught the following: Embroidery, Tent work, nuns ditto, queen stitch, Irish ditto and all kinds of shading, also point, Dresden lace work, Shell work and artifical flowers.

Another advertised that he taught "embroidering in a new way, Turkey work for handkerchiefs".

Mrs. Condy advertised in 1738: "To be had at Mrs. Condy's near the Old North Meeting House, all sorts of beautiful figures on Canvas for Tent Stick (not misspelled), the patterns from London, but drawn by her much cheaper than English drawings, all sorts of Canvas without drawing, also silk shades, slacks, Floss, Cruells of all sorts, the best White Chapel Needles and everything for all sorts of Work".

It is this same Mrs. Condy to whom is often attributed the famed "Fishing Lady" patterns.

Much of the work done in the 18th century was Florentine and many beautiful wing chairs and fire screens, as well as chair seats remain. Florentine made a beautiful long-lasting fabric that has stood the test of time well. Beautiful flor patterns, many of them somewhat stylized, were also well thought of and much used for chair seats.

Pattern sources here in America were much the same as elsewhere. Pattern books were available, engravings were a popular source of material and bestiaries and botanical prints were favored sources of inspiration.

The work done in the American colonies closely paralleled work done in England but, because of the time and difficulty crossing the Atlantic, patterns and new threads appeared in America at a later date (sometimes five to ten years later).